• 


REESE    LIBRARY 

OF    THE 

UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA. 


Received  _________ 

Accessions  No.  _  £  /?_  &JT_  Shelf  No.  .  _ 


THE 


A  HISTORICAL  AND  PESCRIPTIVE  ACCOUNT 

OF    TKE    CONSTRUCTION    OF    THE 

WORKS,   AND  THE  QUANTITY, 

QUALITY  AND    COST    OF 

THE  SUPPLY. 


BROOKLYN: 
1S73. 


Entered  according  to  act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1873,  in  the   office 
of  the  Librarian  of  Congress  at  Washington. 


PREFACE. 


An  abundant  supply  of  pure  and  wholesome  water  is 
one  of  the  first  requirements  of  a  growing  city.  The 
appMcances  necessary  to  procure  this  supply  usually 
constitute  one  of  the  most  important  and  expensive 
branches  of  the  Public  Works.  The  progress  of  an 
undertaking  of  this  character  is  duly  chronicled  in  the 
daily  prints,  and  at  its  completion  the  citizens  are  gen- 
erally familiar  with  the  details ;  but  as  time  goes  on,  the 
population  grows,  receiving  additions  from  abroad,  and 
the  question  soon  is  asked  with  increasing  frequency  : 
"  Whence  does  the  water  come,  and  how  is  it  conveyed  ?" 
Since  the  introduction  of  the  water  into  the  city  of 
Brooklyn,  there  has  been  no  description  of  the  Water 
Works  accessible  to  the  general]  public,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  costly  official  memoir  andj  the  scattering 
articles  in  the  daily  papers.  To  supply,  in  a  condensed 
and  inexpensive  form,  the  result  of  a  compilation  from 
all  existing  sources  of  information,  together  with  facts 
gained  by  several  years  of  personal  connection  with  the 
Works,  as  an  answer  to  all  questions  that  may  be  asked 
concerning  the  Ridgewood  Water,  is  the  present  design 
of  the 

AUTHOE. 


THE 


first  agitation  of  the  question  of  Water- 
Supply  of  which  we  have  authentic  record 
occurred  in  1834,  shortly  after  the  incorporation 
of  Brooklyn  as  a  city,  and  when  it  contained 
but  23,000  inhabitants.  It  was  then  proposed 
to  sink  wells  near  the  foot  of  Fort  Green,  from  which 
the  water  \vas  to  be  forced  by  steam  pumps  to  a  reser- 
voir upon  the  summit  of  the  hill.  The  distribution 
was  to  consist  of  11  miles  of  10  and  4-inch  pipe  ;  the 
whole  to  cost  $100,000.  This  proposition  was  not,  how- 
ever, acted  upon.  In  1847  the  subject  was  again  brought 
up  by  a  committee. report,  advising  the  construction  of 
immense  wells  at  the  foot  of  the  southeast  slope  of  the 
hills  at  the  rear  of  the  city  ;  the  water  to  be  raised  by 
steam-power  to  a  reservoir  40  feet  above  the  tops  of  the 
houses  on  the  Heights. 

Again  in  1849  the  well-system  was  advocated,  but  re- 
ceived a  severe  blow  through  the  report  of  Dr.  Torrey 
that  the  Brooklyn  well-water  contained  18$-  grains  of 
solid  matter  to  the  gallon,  or  14|  grains  more  than  the 
Croton  water,  and  hence  was  ill  adapted  to  domestic 
uses.  The  population  of  the  city  had  at  this  time  be- 


6 

come  three  times  as  large  as  in  1834,  and  the  estimated 
cost  of  the  proposed  water  -  works  was  increased  to 
$800,000.  At  the  same  time,  plans  were  under  consid- 
eration for  a  supply  from  the  country  streams,  includ- 
ing an  engine  and  stand-pipe  at  each  mill-pond,  forcing 
the  water  through  iron  pipes  to  a  pump-well  at  Flatbush, 
from  whence  it  was  to  pumped  to  a  reservoir  upon 
Prospect  Hill.  In  1851  the  question  was  again  taken 
up,  and,  reinforced  by  an  appropriation  to  defray  the 
expense  of  preliminary  surveys,  the  committee  obtained 
from  Win.  J.  McAlpin  a  report  on  the  extent  of  the 
water  supply  and  the  mode  of  introducing  it,  as  follows  : 
"Dams  were  to  be  placed  at  Jamaica,  Nostrand's, 
Springfield,  and  Simonson's  Streams,  and  their  waters 
carried  by  conduits  into  Baisley's  Pond  ;  thence  to  con- 
duct the  water  in  a  large  conduit  9  miles  to  Flatbush, 
from  whence  it  was  to  be  pumped  into  an  oval  reservoir 
upon  the  summit  of  Prospect  Hill  of  60,000,000  gallons 
capacity.  The  minimum  capacity  of  the  works  was  to 
be  10,000,000  gallons  per  day,  and  the  total  cost,  includ- 
ing a  Cornish  pumping-engine  and  75  miles  of  pipe-dis- 
tribution, $3,500,000."  It  was  decided  to  submit  this 
plan  to  the  popular  vote  on  January  27,  1852 ;  but  a  few" 
days  previous  to  that  date  the  election  was  deferred  to 
further  revise  and  mature  the  plans  by  means  of  more 
elaborate  surveys. 

In  the  meantime,  a  company  known  as  the  Williams- 
burgh  W^ater  Company  had  secured  a  charter,  with  the 
view  of  supplying  water  to  Williamsburgh  alone,  and 
had  purchased  several  of  the  ponds  for  that  purpose. 

In  1853  this  company  obtained  an  amendment  to  its 
charter,  changing  its  name  to  the  Long-Island  Water 


Company,  increasing  its  capital  from  $500,000  to  $3,000,- 
000,  and  authorizing  it  to  furnish  a  water  supply  to 
Brooklyn  also. 

The  election  previously  alluded  to  as  deferred  was 
held  on  July  11,  1853,  and  resulted  in  a  rejection  by  the 
people  of  the  proposed  plan  by  a  vote  of  5,054  to  2,639. 
In  1854  a  new  water  committee  was  appointed,  and  a 
new  plan  based  upon  former  surveys  was  prepared  for 
submission  to  the  people.  This  plan  contemplated  a 
supply  from  all  of  the  streams  west  of  Parsonage  Creek 
at  Hempstead ;  the  overflow  from  dams  to  be  erected 
upon  them  to  be  conducted  in  an  open  canal  to  Bais- 
ley's  Pond  ;  from  thence  to  flow  through  a  closed  con- 
duit to  a  pump- well  situated  near  Spring  Creek,  from 
whence  it  was  to  be  pumped  into  a  reservior  upon  the 
hill  above.  The  works  were  to  have  a  capacity  of  20,- 
000,000  gallons  per  diem  when  opened,  and  to  be  capable 
of  future  increase  to  40,000,000  gallons.  The  cost  of 
the  whole  was  estimated  at  $4,500,000.  This  plan  was 
voted  upon  June  1,  1854,  by  the  citizens,  who  again  re- 
jected the  proffered  supply  by  a  vote  of  9,105  to  0,402. 
At  about  this  time  the  well  system  again  found  its  ad- 
vocates, but  was  finally  disposed  of  by  the  report  of 
J.  S.  Stoddard,  C.  E.,  which  demonstrated  that  not  more 
than  1,000,000  gallons  per  diem  could  be  obtained 
through  wells  from  a  drainage  area  of  30  square  miles. 

In  March,  1854,  an  offer  was  made  by  H.  S.  Welles  & 
Co  ,  contractors,  to  contruct  the  works  according  to  the 
plans  last  voted  upon  for  the  sum  of  $4,175,000  ;  but  as 
no  arrangement  could  be  made  with  the  Long-Island 
Water  Company,  which  still  held  the  ponds  and  reser- 
voir  site,  this  offer  was  not  entertained.  In  1855  another 


company  was  chartered  under  the  name  of  the  Nassau 
Water  Company,  with  power  to  construct  works  and  to 
supply  the  city  with  water.  Their  plans  .included  an 
open  canal  from  Jamaica  Pond,  designed  to  intercept  all 
of  the  smaller  streams  between  the  pond  and  the  pump- 
ing-engines.  On  the  1st  of  January,  1855,  the  new  City 
Charter,  incorporating  William  sburgh  and  Bush  wick 
with  Brooklyn,  came  into  effect,  giving  a  fresh  impetus 
to  the  water  question.  Under  the  authority  conferred 
by  the  charter,  negotiations  were  established  between 
the  Nassau  Water  Company  and  the  city,  the  result  of 
which  was  an  arrangement  whereby  the  city  obtained  a 
controlling  power  in  the  directorate  of  the  Nassau 
Company  by  the  subscription  of  $1,300,000,  the  company 
to  conduct  the  construction  of  the  Works  in  trust  for 
the  city  pending  the  pascage  of  a  law  enabling  the  latter 
to  assume  absolute  proprietorship.  A  contract  was  at 
once  entered  into  with  H.  S.  Welles  &  Co.  to  construct 
works  guaranteed  to  yield  20,000,000  gallons  per  day 
within  two  years  from  the  date  of  contract.  On  the 
31st  of  July,  1856,  the  commencement  of  the  Works  was 
formally  inaugurated  by  breaking  ground  for  the  Ridge- 
wood  Reservior.  From  this  thne  the  work  of  construc- 
tion rapidly  progressed,  until  March  of  1857,  when  a 
change  in  the  character  of  the  conduit  east  of  Jamaica 
was  found  advisable,  it  having  proved  impossible,  in 
the  unstable  sands,  to  construct  or  maintain  an  open 
canal  that  would  continue  reliable  and  efficient.  Through 
delays  attendant  upon  this  change  in  the  plan,  opera- 
tions upon  this  portion  of  the  work  were  held  in  abey- 
ance for  more  than  a  year.  The  remainder,  however, 
was  actively  pushed  to  completion  ;  and  on  December 


9 


12,  1858,  the  long-looked-for  supply  was  placed  at  the 
disposal  of  the  citizens  of  Brooklyn.  Thus,  after  a 
twenty-five  years'  agitation  of  the  water  question,  its 
solution  was  ultimately  attained,  and  the  people  have 
continued  uninterruptedly  to  enjoy  the  convenience  and 
protection  of  an  agent  which  has  contributed  more  than 
any  other  to  the  advancement  of  the  growth  and  pros- 
perity of  the  city. 

A>o,  < 

OPOG£\APHY  AND  ^EOLOGY  OF  THE 

|^/ONGr  ISLAND,  upon  the  western  extremity 
of  which  the  city  of  Brooklyn  is  located, 
extends  in  an  easterly  direction  about  114 
miles,  with  a  varying  width  of  from  10  to  20 
miles.  Geologically  considered,  the  Island  is  of 
very  recent  origin,  having  been  formed  almost  wholly 
by  glacial  agency.  If  any  portion  of  it  were  in  exist- 
tence  prior  to  the  glacial  epoch,  it  has  been  extensively 
modified  and  augmented  by  the  eroding  and  transport- 
ing power  of  the  vast  field  of  ice  which,  extending  from 
the  far  north,  found  its  terminus  in  the  warmer  waters 
of  the  Atlantic.  Upon  the  western  end  of  the  Island 
the  origin  of  the  materials  of  which  it  is  composed  is 
especially  evident.  The  ground  is  full  of  worn-  masses 
of  stone,  with  surfaces  often  deeply  scored  by  obstacles 
over  which  they  have  been  urged  with  resistless  force 
during  their  transportation.  Side  by  side,  with  bowlders 
of  trap  from  the  Palisades,  dark  trap  and  sienites  from 
the  Hudson  Highlands,  and  the  Taconic  range,  with  oc- 
casional masses  from  the  Lower  Helderberg  with  their 
characteristic  fossils,  lie  the  gneiss  and  marble  of  West- 


10 

Chester,  the  slaty  shales  of  the  Hudson  group,  the  red 
sandstones  of  New  Jersey,  together  with  many  other 
varieties  of  rock,  the  counterparts  of  which  still  abound 
northward  and  northwestward  of  the  Island.  These, 
mixed  in  extreme  confusion,  and  packed  with  the 
water-worn  particles  of  their  debris,  comprise  what  is 
known  to  geologists  as  the  unmodified  Drift.  Through- 
out the  entire  length  of  Long  Island  runs  an  irregular 
chain  of  hills  of  from  150  to  384  feet  in  height,  the 
northern  spurs  of  which  form  the  abrupt  and  diversified 
North  Shore  ;  while  on  the  south  the  surface  slopes 
gently  away  toward  the  sea,  terminating  in  a  gravelly 
plain,  which  skirts  the  shores  of  the  bays  with  a  vary- 
ing width  of  from  5  to  15  miles.  The  material  compos- 
ing the  ridge  of  hills  is  made  up  of  the  compact  drift 
already  described.  Bowlders  are  everywhere  abundant, 
and  isolated  beds  of  clay  fill  many  of  the  depressions  on 
the  elevated  grounds,  rendering  them  quite  impervious 
to  water.  This  character  is  lost  as  the  slope  descends, 
and  layers  of  fine,  uniform-grained  sand,  beds  of  pebbles 
and  gravel,  and  occasionally  local  deposits  of  clay  in 
thin  strata,  characterize  the  ground  to  great  depths. 
Through  this  porous  material  the  waters  fiow  toward 
the  ocean,  bursting  forth  at  various  points  in  springs, 
forming  streams  of  singular  clearness  and  purity.  It  is 
from  the  larger  of  these  streams  that  the  water  supply 
of  Brooklyn  is  derived. 


11 


^BE    JJRA.NAGE-^AS.N. 

HE  area  included  between  the  ridge  and' 
the  lowest  limit  at  which  the  water  of  the 
streams  is  economized  for  the  supply  of  Brook- 
lyn comprises  about  60  square  miles,  and  con- 
stitutes the  Drainage-Basin  in  which  the  rain- 
fall is  collected.  The  portion  of  this  basin  lying  upon 
the  immediate  slope  of  the  ridge  does  not  yield  a  large, 
available  quantity  of  water  in  proportion  to  its  area  ;  for 
from  the  almost  impenetrable  nature  of  its  soil,  and  the 
rapid  slope  of  its  surface,  the  greater  part  of  the  rain 
falling  upon  it  .runs  quickly  off  into  the  streams  as 
storm-water,  and  is  lost  to  the  underground  storage.  It 
is  from  the  great  expanse  of  nearly-level,  sandy  plain 
that  the  larger  portion  of  the  supply  is  derived.  This 
plain  is  composed  of  fine  sand  and  gravel,  very  pervious, 
and  at  the  same  time  very  retentive  of  water,  the  fine 
interstices  between  the  particles  of  sand  affording  room 
for  the  entrance  of  v/ater,  while  at  the  same  time  re- 
tarding the  velocity  of  its  flow.  The  rainfalls  of  former 
years  have  been  saturating  this  mass  of  sand  ;  and  as 
each  successive  fall  of  rain  sank  into  the  ground  faster 
than  it  could  be  carried  off  through  the  sand  and  into 
the  bays,  it  followed  that  the  level  to  which  the  satura- 
tion extended  must  continually  rise  until  a  sufficient 
head  had  been  attained  to  force  the  water  through  the 
sand  as  fast  as  it  was  received.  It  is,  by  this  process,, 
that  the  water-roof,  as  it  is  called,  has  been  formed — a 
roof,  or  upper  surface  of  a  water-bearing  stratum  of 
sand,  sloping  up  uniformly,  at  a  rate  of  12  feet  per  mile,. 


from  the  sea  to  the  ridge.  So  accurately  has  the  posi- 
tion of  this  underground  water-surface  been  determined 
that  it  is  possible  to  predicate,  within  a  few  feet,  the 
exact  depth  at  which  water  may  be  found  anywhere 
within  the  bounds  of  the  Drainage-Basin.  The  regimen 
of  this  water-bearing  body  of  sand  being  once  estab- 
lished, is  evident  that,  whenever  rain  falls  upon  the  sur- 
face, a  certain  portion  of  it  goes  to  replace  whatever 
may  be  wanting  to  fill  the  bed  to  the  water-roof  ;  the 
balance,  unable  to  descend  further,  flows  along  the  sur- 
face of  the  saturated  sand,  and  finds  its  outlet  in  that 
class  of  springs  which  appear  shortly  after  heavy  rains 
and  disappear  during  protracted  droughts. 

It  further  follows,  from  the  extreme  slowness  with 
which  the  water  finds  its  way  through  the  water-bearing 
stratum,  that  the  flow  from  the  springs  deriving  their 
water  from  it  is  not  perceptibly  affected  either  by  storm 
or  drought.  It  is,  in  fact,  the  recorded  opinion  of  engi- 
neers who  have  made  this  matter  an  especial  study  that 
it  would  require  a  succession  of  unprecentedly-dry  sea- 
sons to  materially  affect  the  underground  water-level  or 
the  flow  therefrom.  Such,  then,  is  the  nature  of  the 
source  from  which  the  Ridgewood  water  is  derived. 
Flowing  through  a  natural  filter-bed,  more  perfectly 
adapted  to  its  purpose  than  though  it  had  been  con- 
structed by  art,  containing  scarcely  more  than  a  trace  of 
soluble  mineral  or  organic  matter,  it  is  without  a  rival 
in  the  world  for  the  purity  and  permanence  of  its 
supply. 


13 


Traversing  the  surface  of  the  Drainage-Basin  from  north 
to  south  are  several  streams  of  various  size,  the  largest 
of  which  have  been  appropriated  for  water  supply. 
Commencing  at  Jamaica  on  the  west,  the  first  stream 
met  with  is  the  supply  of 


[S  is  probably  the  oldest  artificial  pond 
on  the  Island.  It  receives  the  flow  of  two 
^  i^K  streams,  one  of  which  rises  about  a  quarter  of 
^P$e[  a  mile  south  from  the  town  of  Jamaica  and  4 
^  |  miles  from  the  bay,  and  the  other  has  its  source 
near  Little  Plains,  about  the  same  distance  from  the 
bay.  After  receiving  each  several  small  tributaries, 
they  unite  near  the  head  of  what  was  formerly  known 
as  Baisley's  Mill-Pond.  The  valleys  through  which 
these  streams  flow,  though  very  wide  are  quite  shallow, 
not  being  over  15  feet  below  the  adjoining  uplands.  A 
small  brook  also  enters  the  pond  from  the  east,  bringing 
a  small,  additional  supply.  When  first  acquired  by  the 
water  authorities,  the  bed  of  the  pond  was  filled  with  a 
thick  deposit  of  fine  mud  and  vegetable  matte./;  the 
streams  which  supplied  it  flowed  through  a  dense  swamp 
containing  the  vegetable  debris  of  centuries,  their  waters 
heavily  laden  with  organic  matter,  and  possessed  at 
times  of  a  very  disagreeable  taste  and  odor.  To  remedy 
these  evils  the  pond  was  drained,  and  nearly  300,000 
cubic  yards  of  bog  and  muck  removed,  leaving  a  bed  of 


14 


clean,  white  sand  at  the  bottom.  The  channels  of  the 
streams  were  also  widened  and  freed  from  vegetable 
accumulations,  thus  rendering  the  quality  of  the  water 
all  that  could  be  desired. 

During  the  excavation,  remains  of  a  mastodon  were 
found,  one  tooth  of  which  is  cherished  by  the  Long- 
Island  Historical  Society  as  an  authentic  memento  of 
the  oldest  inhabitant.  The  old  and  insecure  mill  dam 
was  removed,  and  a  new  dam  built  with  an  interior 
puddle-wall  and  paved  slope,  provided  with  an  overfall 
21  feet  broad  and  sluiceway  of  stone-masonry,  the  latter 
delivering  into  a  circular  brick  conduit  of  42  inches  in- 
terior diameter  through  which  the  water  is  conducted 
a  distance  of  2,937  feet  to  the  main  conduit.  The  drain- 
age area  from  which  this  pond  is  supplied  comprises 
10.88  square  miles,  and  its  available  storage  capacity  is 
6,128,300  gallons.  The  area  of  its  water-surface  is  40 
acres,  and  lies  at  a  level  of  nearly  8  feet  above  tide. 
This  pond  can  be  relied  upon  for  a  daily  supply  of  3,13  J,- 
000  gallons,  even  in  a  season  as  dry  as  the  dryest  upon 
record.  The  distance  of  the  pond  from  the  pump-well 
along  the  line  of  the  conduit  and  branch  is  about  5£ 
miles. 


?  HIS  pond,  situated  at  a  distance  of  nearly 
8  miles  from  the  pump  well,  is  supplied  by 
a  stream  flowing  through  a  comparatively  nar- 
row valley,  and  branching  into  three  forks  near 
its   source,  its   total   length,  including  tribu- 
Sj  being  about  4  miles.     The  valley  is  deeper  than 
that  of  the  Jamaica  stream,  and  its  rate  of  descent  greater. 


15 


The  power  of  the  water  was  formerly  economized  at 
several  points  along  its  course,  Simonson's  Mill-Pond 
being  the  original  name  of  what  is  now  known  as  the 
Brook  field  Reservoir.  The  dam  is  constructed  —  as  is  the 
case  in  all  the  ponds  —  with  an  interior  wall  of  puddled 
clay,  7  feet  wide  at  the  base,  and  9  feet  high,  the  inte- 
rior slopes  paved  and  the  outer  sodded.  The  pond  is 
rectangular  in  form,  and  has  an  area  of  water  surface, 
when  full,  of  8f  acres,  standing  at  a  level  of  15^  feet 
above  tide.  It  receives  the  supply  from  a  water-shed  of 
5f  square  miles,  and  delivers  at  a  minimum  a  flow  of 
nearly  2,000,000  gallons  daily.  The  available  storage 
capacity  is  15,500,000  gallons.  The  Merrick  plank-road 
crosses  it  near  the  centre  of  its  length,  dividing  it  into 
two  parts,  which  communicate  by  a  narrow  raceway. 
The  water  reaches  the  main  conduit  through  a  circular 
branch  conduit  of  brick  24  inches  in  diameter. 


£HE  tributaries  of  this  pond  are  short,  their 
united  length  not  exceeding  one  mile.  The 
area  drained  by  them  barely  covers  2-£  square 
miles.  The  pond  is  constructed  substantially 
as  the  others  —  of  a  somewhat  triangular  form, 
with  a  water  surface  of  about  one  acre  lying  11-J-  feet 
above  tide.  Its  storage  capacity  is  800,000  gallons,  and 
minimum  flow  about  750,000  gallons,  per  day.  A  branch 
conduit,  2  feet  in  diameter  and  1,980  feet  lop 
its  waters  to  the  main  conduit.  It  is  < 
pump  -well  about  Sf  miles. 


one  mile  further  to  the  east  lies  the 
Valley-Stream  Pond,  receiving  the  drainage 
of  a  narrow  strip  of  land  extending  northerly 
to  the  ridge.  The  stream  itself  is  nearly  4 
miles  long,  without  tributaries,  and  passes 
through  two  large  mill-ponds  in  addition  to  that  taken 
by  the  Water-  Works  and  formerly  known  as  Cornell's 
Pond.  Its  drainage  area  is  6f  square  miles,  and  its 
minimum  flow  2,433,000  gallons,  yielding  a  greater 
quantity  of  water  in  proportion  to  the  area  drained  than 
any  other  of  the  streams.  This  is,  perhaps,  owing  to 
the  directness  of  its  course  and  the  steeper  slope  of  the 
water-bed  toward  it.  Its  storage  capacity  is  18,800,000 
gallons.  The  water  surface  covers  an  area  of  17f  acres 
at  12£  feet  above  tide.  The  branch-conduit  of  this  pond 
is  30  inches  in  diameter  and  2,103  feet  in  length. 


LOWING  into  the  pond  is  a  stream  which 
receives  its  supply  from  a  strip  of  land 
parallel  with  and  similar  to  that  supplying  Val- 
ley Stream,  but  separated  from  the  latter  by  the 
valley  of  Foster's  brook,  which  is  not  included 
in  the  Works.  The  collecting  area  is  8£  square  miles, 
and  the  flow,  at  a  minimum,  2,600,000  gallons.  The 
stream  is  over  3  miles  long,  its  course  very  direct  and 
without  important  tributaries.  In  form  the  pond  is 
long  and  irregular.  Its  water-surface  lying  18  feet 


17 

above  tide,  ami  covering  an  area  of  8|  acres,  represents 
a  storage  capacity  of  3,128,000  gallons.  The  distance  to 
the  pump-well  is  12£  miles,  the  minimum  flow  2,643,000 
gallons,  and  the  diameter  and  length  of  the  branch  con- 
duit are  respectively  2|  and  1,872  feet. 

J-IEMPSTEAD    POND. 

XS*-'  <&J 

E  principal  source  of  supply,  and  the 
most  distant  point  from  which  the  water  is 

taken,  is  Hempstead  Pond,  situated  12.39  miles 
^  from  the  pump-well.  It  is  fed  by  two  streams 

originating  a  short  distance  from  the  town  of 
Hempstead.  These  streams  unite  south  of  the  town, 
and  the  subsequent  course  of  the  stream  is  marked  by  a 
succession  of  ponds  of  varying  dimensions.  The  main 
pond  at  which  the  conduit  terminates  approaches  the 
form  of  a  square,  with  a  rectangular  projection  at  the 
point  of  entrance  of  the  stream.  Its  water-surface  em- 
braces 23£  acres,  and  stands,  when  full,  10^  feet  above 
tide.  The  drainage  area  extends  over  25f  square  miles 
of  the  country,  stretching  northeasterly  from  the  pond. 
Its  storage  capacity  is  5,364,000  gallons,  and  minimum 
daily  flow  7,800,000  gallons. 

JJLCDITIONAL 

ESIDE  those  already  enumerated,  the  city 
has  gained  possession  of  several  other  ponds, 
some  of  which  form  part  of  the  streams  flow- 
ing into  the  supply-ponds,  while  others,  from 
circumstances  of  level  and  location,  have  not 
yet  been  found  available.  Willetts'  Pond  and  Smart's 


18 

Pond  lie  upon  Freeport  Creek,  4£  miles  beyond  the  end 
of  the  conduit.  This  stream  has  a  Summer  flow  of 
5,250,000  gallons  per  diem  ;  but  the  surroundings  of  the 
ponds  are  swampy,  and  would  require  extensive  im- 
provement to  render  the  water  desirable.  One-Mile 
Pond,  lying  at  the  head-waters  of  the  easterly  branch  of 
Jamaica  Stream  is  small  in  capacity,  and  performs  an 
unimportant  part  in  the  general  scheme. 

QUANTITY  OF  SUPPLY. 

£HE  water  flowing  in  the  streams  during  the 
greater  portion  of  the  year  would  afford  a 
copious  supply  for  Brooklyn  were  the  city 
double  its  present  size  ;  but  seasons  will  come, 
often  unexpectedly,  when  weeks  and  months 
of  Summer  drought  succeed  Springs  of  light  rain-fall, 
and  nothing  is  left  to  feed  the  ponds  but  the  steady,  yet 
slow,  percolation  through  the  sandy  bed  of  the  drainage- 
basin  of  the  rains  that  have  fallen  long  before.  It  is  at 
such  times  as  these,  too,  that  the  water  finds  its  most 
lavish  use  in  the  city  to  refresh  the  thirst  of  its  citizens, 
to  cool  its  dusty  streets,  and  to  revive  its  drooping  foli- 
age. It  is  the  chance  of  the  occurrence  of  such  a  season 
— a  chance  which  Brooklyn  can  ill  afford  to  take,  with 
the  fate  of  Chicago  and  of  Boston  fresh  in  memory — 
that  has  recently  led  the  Water  Authorities  to  urge  so 
strongly  in  favor  of  an  increased  supply.  The  least 
flow  of  the  streams,  guaged  in  a  season  of  unusual 
drought,  was  found  not  to  exceed  20,000,000  gallons  per 
diem.  The  greatest  flow  has  not  been  ascertained,  and 
can  only  be  inferred  from  the  rain-fall.  It  has  been  de- 


19 


termined  by  able  observers  that  only  42^  per  cent,  of 
the  total  amount  of  rain  falling  in  one  year  finds  its 
way  into  the  ponds,  the  remainder  being  lost  by  evapor- 
ation and  in  the  supply  of  springs  below  the  level  of  the 
conduit.  The  rain-records  of  over  40  years  place  the 
average  rain-fall  at  4.2%  inches.  At  this  rate  the  quan- 
tity of  water  brought  down  by  the  streams  in  one  year 
amounts  to  nearly  19,000,000,000  gallons!  The  con- 
sumption of  water  in  the  city  in  1872  somewhat  exceed- 
ed 8,000,000,000  gallons.  The  ponds  have  an  united 
storage  capacity  of  only  57,000,000  gallons ;  so  that  ten 
thousand  neglected  millions  flow  annually  over  their 
wiers.  The  daily  consumption  during  the  present  year 
has  varied  with  the  day  of  the  week  from  20,000,000  to 
2()  000,000  gallons,  and  upon  one  occasion  has  reached 
33,000,000.  During  the  Summer  of  1872,  owing  to  the 
temporary  interruption  of  the  supply  from  some  of  the 
ponds,  pumping  from  streams  below  the  level  of  the 
conduit  was  resorted  to  until  fortunate  rains  made  good 
the  lacking  portion  of  the  supply.  Early  explorations 
have  determined  the  existence  of  40,000,000  daily  gal- 
lons of  water  in  the  streams  between  Hempstead  and 
the  Connetquoit  River,  some  50  miles  east  from  Brook- 
lyn ;  and  many  have  favored  the  extension  of  the  con- 
duit in  this  direction,  as  was,  in  fact,  contemplated  at 
the  outset  of  the  Works.  Others,  on  the  ground  of 
economy  and  compactness  of  the  Works,  have  urged  the 
impounding  of  the  surplus  waters  within  the  present 
limits.  The  latter  opinion  has  prevailed,  but  not  without 
a  severe  struggle.  The  contest  of  old  was  between 
ponds  and  streams  ;  latterly  it  has  been  between  streams 
,and  reservoirs,  no  reflecting  man  in  either  case  doubting 


20 

the  necessity  for  more  water,  but  each  true  to  the  last 
to  his  favorite  mode  of  obtaining  it.  A.  new  storage 
reservoir  upon  Parsonage  Creek,  above  the  Hempstead 
Pond,  is  now  in  progress,  with  a  promise  of  completion 
in  1875,  which  will  contain  over  1,000,000,000  gallons  of 
water.  This  will  supply  a  deficiency  of  10,000,000  gal- 
lons per  day  for  over  three  months,  and  will  set  at  rest 
for  some  time  all  fears  of  a  water-famine. 

J&HE   CONDUIT. 

before  stated,  the  original  design  con- 
templated the  construction  of  an  open  canal 
from  Jamaica  eastward,  with  branches  to 
each  of  the  ponds ;  but  this  crude  and  anti- 
quated idea  was  abandoned  as  soon  as  the 
actual  construction  of  a  portion  had  demonstrated  its 
inefficiency,  and  a  substantial  closed  conduit  of  masonry 
was  substituted  throughout  the  entire  length.  Com- 
mencing at  Hempstead,  provision  was  made  for  carrying 
the  8,289,947  gallons  derivable  from  Hempstead  Pond, 
together  with  20,000,000  gallons  that  might  be  subse- 
quently collected  from  points  further  eastward ;  the 
conduit  at  this  point  having  a  width  of  8  feet  2  inches 
and  a  slope -or  inclination  of  the  bottom  of  6£  inches  per 
mile.  At  the  entrance  of  the  branch-conduit  from 
Rockville  Pond  the  width  is  increased  to  8  feet  8  inches ; 
at  the  junction  of  Valley-Stream  Branch  to  9  feet  2  inches  ; 
at  junction  of  Clear-Stream  Branch,  to  9  feet  4  inches  ; 
at  junction  of  Brookfield  Branch,  to  9  feet  8  inches; 
while  from  Jamaica  Pond  to  the  pump-well  the  width 
is  uniformly  10  feet,  and  the  inclination  of  the  bottom  ti 


21 

inches  per  mile.  This  latter  portion  of  the  Conduit  is 
capable  of  delivering,  with  32  inches'  depth  of  water, 
20,000,000,  and,  with  5  feet  depth,  47,000,000  gallons  of 
water  in  24  hours.  The  low  level  of  the  ponds  and  the 
rate  of  slope  made  deep  cutting  necessary,  especially  on 
approaching  the  pump-well.  Through  the  whole  dis- 
tance the  excavation  was  carried  below  the  water-level 
of  the  country,  rendering  the  construction  additionally 
difficult.  Portions  of  the  bottom  were  found  insecure, 
and  resort  was  here  had  to  pile  foundations,  while  in 
other  parts  platforms  of  timber  were  used  to  afford  a 
firm  bearing  for  the  structure.  The  Conduit  is  support- 
ed upon  a  bed  of  concrete  15  feet  wide.  On  the  lower 
reach,  between  Jamaica  and  the  pump-well,  the  sides 
are  of  stone,  3  feet  high,  with  an  interior  lining  of 
brick  work.  The  bottom  is  an  inverted  arch  of  brick 
4  inches  thick,  with  a  versine  of  8  inches.  The  top  is 
a  brick  arch  12  inches  in  thickness.  The  height  at  the 
centre  is  8  feet  8  inches.  The  stone  used  is  mostly 
gneiss -rock  from  Greenwich,  Conn.  At  convenient 
points  along  the  line,  man-holes  are  added,  either  upon 
the  top  or  on  the  side  of  the  Conduit,  affording  access  to 
its  interior  for  inspection  or  for  repairs.  Not  far  from 
the  pump-well  the  water  found  was  FO  considerable 
that  openings  were  left  in  the  Conduit  to  admit  it. 
These  openings,  30  in  number,  are  estimated  to  be  capa- 
ble of  yielding  over  1,000,000  gallons  per  day.  At 
Spring  Creek,  as  well  as  at  a  point  about  a  mile  beyond, 
and  at  Jamaica,  Valley  Stream  and  Rockville  Creeks, 
are  waste-wiers  over  which  the  surplus  water  escapes. 
Here,  a^o,  are  sluice-gates  for  draining  the  water  from 
the  Conduit  entirely,  in  the  event  of  repairs  becoming 


22 

necessary.  The  construction  of  the  upper  reach  of  the 
Conduit  differs  only  in  the  omission  of  the  inner  lining 
of  the  side-walls,  which  at  several  points  are  made 
wholly  of  brick,  and  an  increase  in  the  thickness  of  the 
bottom  to  8  inches.  For  almost  the  entire  length  the 
Conduit  is  covered  with  4  feet  of  earth,  sloping  on  the 
sides  at  the  rate  of  1^  horizontal  to  1  perpendicular  for 
the  lower  reach,  and  2  horizontal  to  1  perpendicular  on 
the  upper.  Wherever  the  line  has  intercepted  the 
courses  of  streams,  inverted  culverts  have  been  built  to 
carry  the  water  beneath  the  bottom.  At  the  pump-well 
the  Conduit  terminates  in  an  arched  basin  52|  feet  long 
at  right  angles  to  its  course,  and  connecting  with  the 
pump-well  by  four  sluices.  The  total  length  of  the 
Conduit  is  12.39  miles,  7-£  miles  of  which  is  10  feet 
wide  and  8  feet  high,  sufficiently  large  to  drive  a  car- 
riage through  with  ease. 


structure,  from  which  the  water  is 
drawn  by  the  engines,  is  built  of  heavy 
granite  masonry  laid  in  courses  with  hydraulic 
mortar.  The  bottom,  also  of  granite  in  radial 
courses,  rests  upon  a  bed  of  concrete,  beneath 
which  is  a  heavy  platform  of  timber.  The  surface  of 
the  bottom  is  two  feet  below  the  bottom  of  the  conduit. 
The  interior  of  the  Pump-Well  is  divided  into  compart- 
ments by  cross-walls  to  admit  of  the  examination  and 
repair  of  either  pump  without  interfering  with  the 
other. 


23 


HE 


tlie  plain  near  the  foot  of  the  hill,  oc- 
cupied by  the  Ridgewood  Reservoir,  and  by 
the  side  of  the  pump-well,  stand  the  Pumping. 
Engines,  three  in  number,  enclosed  in  a  sub- 
stantial, if  not  ornamental,  structure  of  brick 
with  brown-stone  trimmings.  The  two  chimneys  for 
producing  draught  for  the  furnaces  are  100  feet  in 
height,  and  consist  of  two  concentric  shells  of  brick, 
with  an  annular  air-space  between  them  for  80  feet  of 
the  height,  the  diameter  of  the  interior  shell  being  five 
feet.  Of  the  three  engines  now  in  operation  one  has 
been  only  recently  erected  ;  the  other  two  have  been 
running  since  the  completion  of  the  Works.  These  En- 
gines were  considered  at  the  time  that  they  were  built 
to  be  a  modification  of,  and  improvement  on,  the  Cornish 
Engine,  then  much  in  vogue  for  pumping  purposes. 
They  differed,  however,  from  the  Cornish  Engine  radi- 
cally, in  that  the  steam  was  made  to  act  directly  on  the 
column  of  water  in  the  rising  main,  and  that  they  weie 
double  acting,  taking  the  steam  at  both  sides  of  the 
piston  and  doing  work  at  either  end  of  the  walking- 
beam.  In  the  Cornish  engine  a  ponderous  mass  of  iron 
is  raised  by  the  steam,  the  descent  of  which,  while  the 
steam  exhausts,  forces  up  the  water  that  has  been  drawn 
in  beneath  it.  This  class  of  engine  is  single  acting,  the 
return  stroke  being  made  by  the  gravitation  of  the 
pump-plunger.  The  only  feature  in  common  between 
the  Ridgewood  and  Cornish  Engines  lies  in  the  absence 
of  the  controlling  power  of  the  crank  and  fly-wheel. 


24 


The  length  of  the  stroke,  within  certain  limits,  depends 
entirely  upon  the  pressure  of  the  steam  and  the  position 
of  the  valves,  requiring  the  utmost  watchfulness  on  the 
part  of  the  attendants.  The  steam  cylinder  of  Engine 
No.  1  was  7-4  feet  in  diameter,  and,  of  No.  2,  7  feet  1 
inch,  the  length  of  stroke  in  each  being  10  feet.  The 
pumps  are  3  feet  in  diameter  and  of  the  same  stroke  as 
the  steam-piston.  Upon  the  rising  main  of  each  pump 
are  large  air-chambers  serving  to  regulate  the  flow  of 
the  water  and  to  act  as  a  cushion  against  any  shock  or 
sudden  change  in  its  velocity.  The  force-mains  leading 
to  the  Reservoir  are  3G  inches  in  diameter  and  3,450  feet 
long.  The  total  lift  is  164  feet.  A  sloping  check -valve, 
with  valves  opening  upward  like  trap-doors,  prevents 
the  return  of  the  water  through  the  force-main  to  the 
pump.  The  original  capacity  of  these  engines  was 
about  15,000,000  gallons  each  in  24  hours,  and  their 
duty,  when  tested  in  1860  and  in  1862,  was  respectively 
607,982  and  619,037  pounds  of  water  raised  one  foot  by 
the  consumption  of  one  pound  of  coal.  These  engines 
have  been  running  almost  continually  from  the  time  of 
their  erection  up  to  the  completion  in  1869  of  the  new  en- 
gine known  as  No.  3.  This  third  engine,  after  a  year's 
trial,  was  found  to  operate  so  satisfactorily  that  in  1871 
Engine  No.  1  was  dismantled,  remodeled  and  converted 
into  a  crank-engine,  with  a  fly-wheel  26  feet  in  diameter. 
The  steam-cylinder  was  replaced  by  a  cylinder  10  inches 
less  in  diameter,  and  the  outer  shell  of  the  pump-cylin- 
der dispensed  with.  These  alterations  resulted  in  the 
delivery  of  3,388  pounds  of  water  into  the  reservoir  for 
every  pound  of  coal  burned  in  the  furnaces.  No.  2, 
which  remains  in  its  original  condition,  requires  1  pound 


25 


of  coal  for  every  3,070  pounds  of  water  thus  delivered- 
These  two  engines  were  built  by  Messrs.  Woodruff  & 
Beach,  of  Hartford.  The  third  and  latest  addition  to 
the  engine  power  is  Engine  No.  3,  built  and  erected  in 
18G9  by  Messrs.  Hubbard  &  Whittaker,  of  Brooklyn.  It 
is  of  the  class  technically  known  as  "  Beam-Rotative 
Engines."  The  fly-wheel  is  26  feet  in  diameter  and 
weighs  over  26  tons.  The  steam-cylinder  is  7  feet  1 
inch  in  diameter ;  the  piston-rod  extends  through  it  and 
acts  as  a  plunger-rod  for  the  pump  beneath,  the  length 
of  stroke  being  10  feet.  At  each  stroke  of  the  pump  a 
volume  of  water  equal  to  135^  cubic  feet,  or  1,059  gal- 
lons, is  raised  into  the  Reservoir.  As  the  ordinary  num- 
ber of  revolutions  made  per  minute  is  11,  within  that 
short  space  of  time  nearly  12,000  gallons,  or  over  350 
barrels,  of  water  are  poured  into  the  Reservoir. 

y^- 

RFSERVOIF^. 

the  crest  of  the  ridge  above  the  Engine- 
house  is  the  Distributing  Reservoir,  cover- 
ing with  its  slopes,  embankments  and  grounds 
^^  a  plot  of  48^  acres.  It  is  built  in  two  divisions, 
the  area  of  which,  when  full,  are  11.85  and 
13.73  acres,  or,  together,  25£  acres.  Its  water  surface* 
when  filled  to  a  depth  of  20  feet,  is  170  feet  above  high 
water.  The  embankments  contain  puddle-walls  extend- 
ing two  feet  higher  than  the  level  to  which  the  Reservoir 
is  filled,  and  the  bottom  is  covered  entirely  with  a  puddle 
of  clay  and  earth  found  upon  the  spot.  The  inner  slopes 
are  paved  with  broken  bowlder-stone  upon  a  bed  of 
stone-chips  and  gravel.  The  water  flows  from  the  bell- 


26 

shaped  mouths  of  the  force-mains  into  a  structure  of 
heavy  stone-masonry  termed  the  influx-chamber,  from 
which  it  flows  over  an  apron  and  into  each  compartment 
of  the  Reservior.  In  traversing  the  distance  of  1,200 
feet,  the  velocity  of  the  stream  is  quite  lost,  and  ample 
time  is  afforded  for  the  deposit  of  any  sediment  that 
may  be  held  in  suspension.  At  the  effluent  -  chamber 
are  two  massive  granite  walls  with  4  sluiceways  in 
each,  through  which  the  water  passes  into  the  chamber 
and  thence  into  the  mains.  Separating  the  effluent- 
chamber  from  the  stopcock-chamber  is  a  heavy  wall  of 
cut  stone  6  feet  in  thickness,  into  which  are  set  the 
mouth-pieces  of  3  mains  each  of  36  inches  diameter. 
Only  two  of  thece  mains  are  in  use  at  the  present  time, 
the  admission  of  water  to  them  being  controlled  by  two 
large  gates  of  stop-cocks  in  the  stopcock  chamber.  Be- 
fore entering  the  effluent-chamber  the  water  passes 
through  screens  of  copper  wire,  which  arrest  all  float- 
ing matter  of  considerable  size.  Drain-pipes  12  inches 
in  diameter,  to  drain  the  compartments  for  repairs,  pass 
through  the  stopcock-chamber  where  their  valves  are 
placed.  Of  the  two  divisions,  the  Western  is  the  larger, 
containing,  when  filled,  to  a  depth  of  20  feet,  86,651,382 
gallons.  The  Eastern  Division  holds  74,439,062  gallons. 
The  total  capacity  of  the  Reservoir  is  161,090,444  gal- 
lons, which,  at  the  present  rate  of  consumption,  is  equal 
to  about  one  week's  supply. 


*%\ 

((UNIVERSITY) 

rik/ 


27 


4AINS. 

fROM  the  northern  wall  of  the  efflux  chamber 
passing  through  the  stopcock-chamber,  and 
curving  thence  westerly,  extend  the  two  princi- 
pal mains  through  which  the  water  descends  by 
gravitation  to  the  city.  The  main  entering  on 
the  west  side  is  the  one  first  laid,  and  was  the  sole  de- 
pendence of  the  city  until  1867.  It  is  3  feet  in  diameter, 
and  extends  along  the  Cypress -Hills  Plank,- road  to 
Cooper  avenue,  down  Cooper  avenue,  through  Broad- 
way and  Dekalb  avenue  to  Vanderbilt  avenue,  where  it 
is  reduced  in  diameter  to  2-£  feet.  From  thence  it  ex- 
tends along  Dekalb  avenue,  through  Fulton  avenue  and 
Joralemon  street  to  Clinton  street,  and  along  Clinton 
street  to  Hamilton  avenue.  A  30-inch  branch-main  pro- 
ceeds from  the  corner  of  Dekalb  avenue  and  Broadway, 
along  Broadway  to  Union  avenue ;  and  another  branch- 
main  of  the  same  calibre  extends  from  the  corner  of 
Dakalb  and  Washington  avenues,  along  Washington 
and  Underbill  avenues  to  the  Prospect-Hill  Engine- 
house.  Through  the  increased  demand  for  water,  this 
main  soon  became  unequal  to  the  supply  ;  and  in  1867  a 
second  main  was  added.  This  main  starts  from  the 
efflux-chamber  parallel  to  the  first,  but  soon  bends  to 
the  south  and  passes  along  the  Jamaica  Turnpike  and 
Atlantic  avenue  to  Clinton  street,  where  it  is  connected 
with  the  first  main.  Its  diameter  is  4  feet,  and  its  total 
-  length  6f  miles.  From  the  ends  of  these  large  mains, 
and  at  various  points  in  their  length,  10  twenty  inch 
mains  extend,  conveying  the  water  to  the  extremities 


28 

of  the  city,  and  acting  as  temporary  feeders  during  the 
repair  of  any  portion  of  the  principal  mains.  The 
larger  mains  were  laid  in  such  a  manner  as  to  penetrate 
the  then  centres  of  population,  their  branches  to  reach 
toward  and  into  the  outlying  neighborhoods.  Their 
capacity  is  at  present  far  in  advance  of  the  needs  of  the 
people;. but  with  the  growth  of  the  population  they 
must  fail,  and  an  additional  5-feet  main  will  eventually 
be  laid  on  the  north  of  the  present  mains  and  extended 
to  the  centre  of  the  rapidly-growing  Eastern  District. 
The  loss  of  head  at  present  does  not  exceed  ten  feet 
during  the  hours  of  heaviest  draught.  The  pipes  of 
which  the  mains  are  composed  are  of  cast-iron,  varying 
in  thickness  with  the  pressure  that  they  are  called  upon 
to  sustain.  A  large  number  of  them  came  from  Glas- 
cow,  Scotland ;  the  remainder  from  foundries  in  New 
Jersey  and  Pennsylvania.  At  convenient  points  along 
the  line  of  the  mains  gates  are  placed  to  control  the 
quantity  of  water  flowing  through  them,  as  well  as  to 
cut  off  the  water  for  repairs.  The  gates  are  enclosed  in 
brick  chambers,  entered  through  an  iron  man  hole  set 
in  the  surface  of  the  street.  The  spindles  of  all  of  the 
gates  are  geared  for  power,  with  bevel-gearing  in  the 
proportion  of  3  or  4  to  1.  The  number  of  threads  on 
the  screws  by  which  the  valves  are  moved  is  usually 
either  4  or  5  per  inch,  so  that  it  is  necessary  to  turn  the 
wrench  784  times  with  all  the  force  that  four  men  can 
conveniently  exert  to  open  or  close  a  48-inch  gate. 
When  the  pressure  is  all  upon  one  side  of  the  valve,  a 
much  greater  force  than  this  is  needed  to  raise  it.  From 
the  number  of  the  cross-connections  between  the  mains 
there  is  little  danger  of  the  supply  being  cut  off  by  a 


break  in  either,  except  in  that  portion  of  the  48-inch 
main  between  Nostrand  avenue  and  the  Reservoir,  the 
failure  of  which  would  cause  serious  inconvenience 
upon  the  higher  grades.  The  interior  of  the  mains 
originally  laid  are  now  thickly  covered  with  a  coating 
of  rust-nodules,  or  "  tubercles,"  which  resemble  mush- 
rooms in  form,  and  are  composed  of  oxide  and  carbonate- 
of-iron,  with  some  clay.  The  inner  surface  of  the  pipe 
beneath  these  formations  seldom  appears  corroded  to 
any  considerable  extent  ;  and  the  question  has  been 
often  raised  whether  the  iron  in  the  rust  was  originally 
a  part  of  the  water  or  of  the  pipe.  The  great  dispro- 
portion in  bulk  between  metallic  iron  and  its  hydrated 
oxide  will  amply  account  for  the  existence  of  a  large 
amount  of  the  latter  without  any  readily-perceptible 
loss  to  the  pipe.  All  of  the  mains  and  smaller  pipes 
laid  since  1862  have  been  coated,  both  inside  and  out, 
with  a  varnish  of  coal-tar  and  linseed-oiJ,  into  which 
each  pipe  is  dipped,  while  hot,  at  the  foundry.  This 
coating  affords  an  almost  complete  protection  against 
the  formation  of  tubercle. 


are  certain  portions  of  the  city  in 
cm^y  °f  Prospect  Park  that  lie  so 
near  to  the  level  of  the  Ridgewood  Reservoir 
that  the  water  will  not  How  to  them  from 
thence,  or,  at  best,  will  only  furnish  a  limited 
supply  during  the  night.  For  the  accommodation  of 
these  the  Mt.-  Prospect  Reservoir  was  built,  and  the 
Mt.-Prospect  Engine  erected,  to  supply  it.  The  Engine 


30 


is  of  the  crank  and  fly- wheel  pattern,  with  a  steam- 
cylinder  24  inches  in  diameter  and  4|  feet  stroke,  and 
two  pumps  each  20  inches  in  diameter  and  3£  feet 
stroke.  Being  connected  directly  with  the  30 -inch 
branch-main,  there  is  always  a  positive  water-pressure 
of  from  12  to  16  pounds  per  square  inch  upon  the 
pump-pistons  and  a  corresponding  economy  of  power  in 
operating  them.  There  is  an  air-chamber  upon  both 
the  induction  and  rising  mains  to  render  the  flow  of  the 
water  uniform.  The  ordinary  speed  of  the  Engine  is 
20  revolutions  per  minute,  and  the  quantity  of  water 
raised  at  each  stroke  is  nearly  112  gallons.  From  the 
pumps  the  water  is  conveyed  through  a  force-main  20 
inches  in  diameter  and  2,052  feet  in  length  to  a  height 
of  75  feet  into  the  Reservoir. 


a  commanding  eminence  near  the  main 
entrance  of  Prospect  Park  is  located  Mt- 
Prospect  Reservoir.  Its  part  in  the  system  of 
t?j&  water-distribution  is  to  furnish,  under  a  ser- 
£  A  viceable  pressure,  a  proper  supply  of  water  to 
that  portion  of  the  city  lying  south  of  Atlantic  avenue 
and  east  of  Fifth  avenue,  which  is  too  near  to  the 
level  of  the  Ridgewood  Reservoir  to  conveniently 
draw  its  supply  from  that  source.  The  Reservoir 
grounds  cover  11  acres,  three  fourths  of  which  is  oc- 
cupied by  the  Reservoir  and  its  appurtenances.  The 
embankments  are  20  feet  wide  at  the  top,  and  the 
slopes,  both  inside  and  out,  are  at  the  rate  of  1£  horizon- 
tal to  1  perpendicular.  Instead  of  the  interior  puddle- 


31 


wall  of  the  Ridgewood  Reservoir,  the  inner  slopes,  as 
well  as  the  bottom,  are  lined  with  a  layer  of  puddle  of 
mixed  clay  and  earth  two  feet  in  thickness.  Upon  the 
face  of  this  puddle  an  uniform  bed  of  concrete,  com- 
posed of  hydraulic  mortar  and  gravel,  is  laid  3  inches 
thick,  and  upon  this  rests  the  brick  slope-wall  8  inches 
in  thickness.  The  bottom  has  a  slope  of  6  inches 
toward  the  south  and  is  covered  with  a  paving  of 
bricks  on  edge,  with  a  fine  mixture  of  cement  poured 
into  their  joints.  In  the  northern  embankment  nearest 
the  Engine-house  the  influent-chamber  is  built,  of  cut- 
granite  masonry,  12  feet  high,  6  feet  deep,  and  10  feet 
long.  The  force-main  from  the  pumps  enters  this  cham- 
ber near  the  bottom.  At  a  point  some  five  feet  above 
the  bottom  a  30-inch  pipe  is  placed,  which  passes  down 
under  the  inner  slope.  The  water  entering  through 
the  first  pipe  fills  the  chamber  until  the  level  of  the 
30-inch  pipe  is  reached,  when  it  flows  down  the  latter 
and  is  delivered  into  the  Reservoir  beyond  the  foot  of 
the  slope.  The  proper  high -water  mark  is  attained 
where  the  water  in  the  Reservoir  is  20  feet  deep,  and 
any  surplus  water  that  may  be  pumped  into  it  after 
that  depth  has  been  reached  will  flow  out  through  a 
12  inch  overflow-pipe  which  starts  from  the  influent- 
chamber  at  that  level.  The  high- water  surface  is  198 
feet  above  tide,  or  28  feet  higher  than  that  of  the 
Ridgewood  Reservoir.  Upon  the  southern  embank- 
ment stands  the  commodious  Gate-House  and  Observa- 
tory, the  view  from  which,  of  Brooklyn,  New  York,  and 
their  environs,  is  unsurpassed.  On  the  south  lies  the 
ocean,  grand  and  still  in  the  distance.  On  a  clear  day 
one  may  count  the  breakers  as  they  roll  in  upon  the 


32 

sandy  beaches  of  Rockaway  and  Coney  Island.  Toward 
the  west  spread  the  broad  and  fertile  fields  of  Flatbush 
and  the  quiet  beauties  of  Prospect  Park.  On  the  north 
is  the  woody  summit  of  the  Ridge,  with  East  New  York 
and  Bushwick  upon  either  side.  Here  may  be  seen  how 
surely  and  insidiously  the  red  and  white  hues  of  the 
city  are  stealing  in  upon  the  green  farm-lands  of  the 
original  settlers.  On  the  southwest  are  the  distant  hills 
of  Staten  Island  and  New  Jersey,  and  below  them  the 
broad  expanse  of  the  Bay,  enlivened  by  the  motions  of 
the  countless  craft  that  ply  its  waters  for  pleasure  or 
for  gain.  On  the  west  the  view  extends  over  the  three 
cities  of  Brooklyn,  New  York,  and  Jersey  City — the 
homes  of  more  than  a  million  of  people  and  the  centre 
of  the  wealth  and  industry  of  the  nation.  The  immense 
value  of  the  cities  exceeds  conception,  though  all  of 
their  vast  proportions  are  included  in  a  glance. 

The  Gate-House  is  much  more  elaborately  constructed 
than  its  office,  in  the  system  of  water-distribution,  would 
seem  to  require ;  but  it  was  evidently  deemed  the  least 
that  could  be  done  at  a  point  where  Nature  had  done  so 
much.  From  the  foot  of  the  inner  slope,  at  the  rear  of 
the  Gate-House,  a  30-inch  main  extends  through  a  vault 
of  stone-masonry  and  down  the  outer  slope,  carrying 
the  water  to  the  city.  At  the  mouth  of  the  main  is  a 
square  chamber  covered  by  a  screen  of  copper  wire 
upon  the  front  and  top  to  prevent  the  entrance  of  fish 
and  floating  impurities.  A  12-inch  drain-pipe  follows 
the  course  of  the  main,  which  serves  to  draw  off  the 
lasf  remnants  of  water  when  the  Reservoir  is  emptied 
for  cleansing  or  for  repair.  The  gates  controlling  the 
flow  through  the  main  and  drain-pipe  are  located  in 


the  vault.  Connected  with  the  drain-pipe  is  a  vertical 
glass  tube  from  which  the  height  of  the  water  in  the 
Reservoir  can  be  accurately  read.  The  force  -main 
through  which  the  Reservoir  is  supplied  has  a  20-inch 
branch  connectiDg  with  the  effluent-main.  The  object 
of  this  arrangement  is  to  enable  the  engine  to  deliver 
the  water  directly  into  the  mains  when  for  any  reason 
it  may  be  expedient  to  throw  the  Reservoir  out  of  ser- 
vice. In  such  a  case  the  20-inch  main  leading  up  to  the 
influent-chamber  would  act  as  a  stand-pipe  to  regulate 
the  flow.  The  capacity  of  the  Reservoir  is  20,000,000 
gallons,  and  the  daily  consumption  of  water  from  it 
varies  from  400,000  to  600,000  gallons. 


interior  diameters  of  the  mains  and 
pipes  at  present  in  use  are  48  inches,  36 
inches,  30  inches,  20  inches,  12  inches,  8  inch- 
es, 6  inches,  and  4  inches.  Originally  the 
term  "  main  "  was  applied  to  all  pipes  of  20 
inches  diameter  and  upward,  and  these  were  never  al- 
lowed to  be  tapped  for  the  purpose  of  private  supply. 
Wherever  water  was  required  upon  streets  in  which 
they  were  located,  an  additional  pipe  was  laid.  This 
was  eventually  found  to  result  in  a  needless  multiplica- 
tion of  pipes,  and  the  20-inch  mains  were  permitted  to 
be  tapped  in  the  same  manner  as  the  smaller  pipes.  At 
the  outset,  the  ruling  length  of  the  pieces  of  which  the 
mains  and  pipes  are  composed  was  9  feet.  They  were 
then  cast  horizontally,  or  nearly  so  ;  and  with  a  greater 
length,  the  sagging  of  the  core,  or  mould  of  the  interior, 


34 


would  have  resulted  in  an  inequality  in  thickness  be- 
tween the  top  and  bottom.  This  mode  of  casting  has 
since  been  changed,  all  of  the  pipes  used  at  present 
being  cast  vertically  and  12  feet  in  length.  They  are 
connected  by  inserting  the  spigot,  or  straight  end,  of  one 
pipe  into  the  hub,  or  bell-shaped  mouth,  of  another, 
driving  several  strands  of  hemp  into  the  annular  space 
between  the  spigot  and  hub,  pouring  from  2  to  2-J- 
inches  of  melted  lead  into  the  space,  and  finishing  the 
joint  by  driving  the  lead  compactly  home  with  proper 
tools.  This  kind  of  joint  admits  of  considerable  move- 
ment of  the  pipe  before  it  shows  signs  of  leaking,  and 
is  readily  made  water-tight  again  by  a  few  blows  of  the 
hammer.  The  pipes  used  are  divided  into  two  classes, 
according  to  their  thickness,  and  designated  as  A-pipe 
and  B-pipe  by  having  these  letters  cast  upon  them. 
The  A-pipes  are  used  upon  grades  higher  than  50  feet 
above  tide,  the  B-pipe  being  used  upon  the  lower  grades. 
The  pipes  are  cast  by  contract,  at  various  foundries  in 
New  Jersey  and  Pennsylvania,  among  which  are  those 
at  Camden,  Florence,  Conshohocken  and  Phillipsburgh. 
The  Water  Department  invariably  stations  a  resident 
inspector  at  the  foundry  where  the  pipes  are  being  cast. 
It  is  his  duty  to  look  to  the  quality  of  the  iron  or  ore 
used  in  the  furnaces,  and  to  protest  against  the  intro- 
duction of  improper  material.  When  the  pipes  are 
cast,  they  are  cleaned  from  the  adhering  portions  of 
mould  and  core,  and  submitted  to  a  preliminary  ham- 
mer-test by  the  inspector.  This  often  results  in  the 
discovery  of  cracks  from  unequal  shrinkage  or  from 
careless  handling,  porous  cavities  caused  by  the  cooling 
of  one  portion  in  advance  of  another,  masses  of  sand 


35 

broken  loose  from  the  core  and  become  imbedded  in  the 
iron,  together  with  many  other  objectionable  defects 
sufficient  to  warrant  him  in  rejecting  the  casting  with- 
out further  trial.  The  pipes  that  are  found  apparently 
free  from  these  defects  are  heated  and  immersed  in  a 
protective  varnish  and  placed  in  the  proving -press, 
where  they  are  subjected  to  an  interior  hydraulic  press- 
ure of  from  250  to  300  pounds  per  square  inch.  While 
under  this  pressure,  they  receive  several  sharp  blows  of 
a  hammer.  If  this  test  be  satisfactory,  they  are  weigh- 
ed, marked,  and  forwarded  to  the  Pipe- Yard  at  South 
Brooklyn,  where  they  are  again  weighed  and  sent  out, 
as  occasion  demands,  to  become  a  part  of  the  general 
distribution.  Each  pipe  has  its  number,  class-letter, 
date,  and  name  of  maker  cast  upon  it,  beside  the  weight 
marked  in  white  paint.  The  average  weight  per  foot  of 
the  several  sizes  of  pipe  is  as  follows  :  4  inches,  24  Ibs.  ; 
6  inches,  37  Ibs.  ;  8  inches,  49  Ibs. ;  12  inches,  76  Ibs.  ;  20 
inches,  180  Ibs.  ;  30  inches,  340  Ibs. ;  36  inches,  410  Ibs. ; 
48  inches,  712  Ibs.  The  total  weight  of  the  iron  pipe  now 
lying  in  the  streets  exceeds  50,000  tons.  In  addition  to  the 
cast-iron  pipe,  there  is  about  2  miles  of  cement-lined 
wrought-iron  pipe  in  use.  The  limited  amount  of  this 
pine  that  was  laid  was  due  to  the  prevailing  distrust  of 
its  durability  at  that  time.  No  leakage,  however,  in  the 
existing  2  miles  of  pipe  has  been  discovered  during  the 
past  three  years.  At  points  where  it  is  desirable  to  con- 
nect the  pipes,  special  castings  in  the  form  of  a  cross  or 
letter  T  are  inserted ;  and  also  where  fire-hydrants  are 
located,  branches  for  that  purpose  are  put  in.  Formerly 
the  branch-pipes  leading  to  the  fire-hydrants  were  only 
4  inches  in  diameter  ;  at  present  they  are  increased  to 


6  inches,  which  admits  of  the  use  of  several  hoze-con- 
nections  on  the  same  hydrant,  and  more  than  doubles 
the  supply  of  water.  Seven  different  patterns  of  fire- 
hydrant  have  been  used  upon  the  Works,  but  none  have 
proved  so  reliable  as  the  original,  Coffin  hydrant, 
which,  notwithstanding  its  unsightly  wooden  box,  has 
given  less  cause  of  complaint,  and  has  required  less  re- 
pair than  any  other  form  that  has  yet  been  tried.  The 
total  number  of  fire-hydrants  now  in  position  is  2,208. 
There  are  also  30  surface-hydrants  rising  directly  from 
the  mains  and  covered  with  an  iron  manhole- casting  set 
in  the  surface  of  the  street.  These  hydrants  have  a 
movable  head  containing  the  hose-outlets,  which  is  kept 
until  wanted  at  some  convenient  locality  near  to  the 
hydrant.  Drinking -hydrants,  originally  designed  on 
the  Holly-Tree  principle,  to  rescue  the  pedestrian  from 
the  allurements  of  the  bar,  have  latterly  been  erected 
for  the  supply  of  people  whose  means  do  not  permit 
them  to  introduce  the  water  into  their  houses.  They 
are  a  perpetual  joy  to  amateur  hydraulicians,  and  at 
such  times  a  terror  to  the  passer-by.  Being  chronically 
out  of  order,  they  are  a  prolific  source  of  expense  and 
waste  to  the  Water  Department.  The  present  number 
upon  the  Works  is  850.  Along  the  river- front,  and  at 
several  points  on  the  line  of  the  principal  mains,  are 
blow-offs,  or  outlets,  for  the  purpose  of  drawing  off  the 
water  for  repairs  to  the  pipes  or  to  free  them  from  sedi- 
ment. The  former  discharge  directly  into  the  river — 
the  latter  into  the  sewers  or  into  basins  especially  con- 
structed for  that  purpose.  The  leading  design  in  plan- 
ning the  pipe-distribution  has  been  to  introduce  into 
the  various  sections  of  the  city  one,  or  if  practicable 


37 


two,  mains  from  different  directions,  and  preferably 
from  different  sources,  each  of  which,  shall  prove  ade- 
quate to  the  supply  of  that  section  when  it  shall  have 
been  solidly  built.  With  this  arrangement,  in  the 
event  of  an  accident  to  either  main,  the  other  can  still 
be  relied  upon.  The  connections  with  the  principal 
mains  are  infrequent,  lateral  branches  occurring  only  at 
long  intervals,  and  provided  with  gates  at  such  points, 
both  upon  the  branch  and  upon  the  main.  In  the  case 
of  the  20-inch  pipes,  the  ramifications  are  increased,  fre- 
quently connecting  with  6-inch  pipes,  which  are  always 
provided  with  a  gate  near  the  branch.  This  latter  size 
is  that  principally  laid  for  the  general  supply,  while  8 
and  12-inch  pipes  are  interspersed  at  proper  intervals, 
not  that  the  streets  in  which  they  are  laid  require  more 
water  than  others,  but  to  facilitate  the  circulation  and 
to  serve  as  feeders  to  convey  the  water  around  any  par- 
ticular portion  of  the  main  that  may  be  temporarily 
thrown  out  of  use.  The  gates  of  the  smaller  pipes  are 
set  in  wooden  boxes  with  iron  covers,  usually  on  the 
-building  line  of  the  street  and  six  feet  from  the  curb. 
The  number  of  gates  of  all  sizes  now  in  use  is  1,793. 
The  pipes  are  all  laid  at  a  depth  of  4  feet  below  the 
surface  of  the  pavement,  and  where  practicable,  upon 
the  north  or  east  side  of  the  street,  six  feet  from  the 
curb.  Some  few  exceptions  to  this  occur  in  unusually 
wide  streets  and  in  those  paved  with  an  expensive 
pavement,  in  which  case  a  pipe  is  laid  under  the  side- 
walk on  either  side  of  the  street.  Each  separate  supply 
is  obtained  by  drilling  a  hole  into  the  pipe  and  inserting 
a  brass  tap.  This  tap  is  perfectly  smooth  upon  its  driv- 
ing-point, and  is  not  screwed,  but  simply  driven  in,  re- 


38 


taining  its  place  by  friction.  It  has  a  movable  plug 
similar  to  that  of  an  ordinary  faucet,  and  a  coupling  to 
connect  it  with  the  lead  pipe,  four  feet  of  which  is  al- 
ways laid  next  to  the  tap,  although  iron  pipe  may  be 
used  to  carry  the  water  into  the  premises.  The  water- 
way of  the  taps  used  for  the  supply  of  private  dwell- 
ings is  three  eighths  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  Factories 
and  public  buildings  are  supplied  from  half-inch  and 
five-eighths-inch  taps,  or  from  several  of  these  con- 
nected with  a  single  pipe,  while  large  manufacturing 
establishments,  as  sugar-houses,  breweries,  etc.,  are 
supplied  through  four-inch  pipes.  Many  of  these  have 
also  an  independent  line  of  four-inch  pipe,  carrying  the 
water  throughout  the  entire  buildings,  with  hose-at- 
tachments in  every  room,  kept  in  readiness  for  immedi- 
ate service  in  case  of  fire.  House-services  are  of  lead, 
tin -lined  lead,  iron,  galvanized  iron,  and  cement-lined 
pipe.  None  of  these  are  without  their  disadvantages. 
The  lead  pipe  poisons  the  water,  the  tin-lined  pipe  is 
difficult  to  connect  without  melting  off  the  lining,  the 
iron  pipe  rapidly  fills  with  rust,  and  the  galvanized  iron 
is  even  worse  than  the  lead,  in  that  wherever  the  zinc 
flakes  off,  or  wherever  a  brass  cock  is  placed,  a  galvanic 
action  ensues  at  the  expense  of  the  zinc,  contaminating 
the  water  with  a  metalic  salt  scarcely  less  detrimental 
to  health  than  are  the  salts  of  lead.  The  cement-lined 
pipe  has  not  been  used  sufficiently  to  test  its  qualities. 

The  original  pipe-distribution  comprised  10  miles  of 
mains  and  110  miles  of  distribution-pipes.  This  amount 
has  been  annually  increased  until  at  the  present  time 
the  total  length  is  16 J  miles  of  mains  and  276J  miles  of 
pipe,  or  292|  miles  in  all.  Four  submerged  lines  of 


39 

pipe  have  been  laid,  two  of  which  are  still  in  use.  One 
of  these  —  a  12-inch  pipe  —  supplies  that  portion  of  the 
city  which  lies  along  the  shore  of  Gowarius  Bay,  and 
crosses  the  Gowanus  Canal  at  the  Penny  Bridge  ;  the 
other  —  a  6-inch  pipe  —  lies  in  the  bed  of  the  Wallabout 
Channel,  and  carries  the  water  to  the  Ordnance  Dock  of 
the  Navy-Yard.  Both  were  laid  with  a  movable  ball 
and  socket-joint  —  an  invention  of  the  Water  Purveyor, 
Mr.  J.  H.  Rhodes  —  and  have  both  proved  water-tight 
and  reliable. 


4  EAR  the  mouth  of  the  Gowanus  Canal  is 
the  Pipe  -Yard,  at  which  the  pipes  and 
other  appurtenances  are  received,  inspected 
and  kept  until  required  for  use.  On  Port- 
land avenue,  between  Park  and  Myrtle,  is  the 
Repair-  Yard,  where  all  of  the  material  and  implements 
necessary  to  remedy  any  defects  in  the  distribution  are 
stored.  Here  all  of  the  water-meters  are  tested  and  re- 
paired, and  all  the  perishable  portions  of  the  hydrants, 
gates,  ate.,  kept  constantly  on  hand.  The  number  of 
tools,  patterns,  fittings,  and  miscellaneous  supplies  is 
immense,  but  all  are  arranged  with  such  admirable  sys- 
tem and  order  that  each  is  readily  found  as  occasion  re- 
quires. The  office  of  the  Repair-Yard  is  connected  by 
telegraph  with  the  City-Hall,  the  Central  Police-Station, 
the  Reservoir,  and  the  Engine-House.  This  Yard  is  the 
headquarters  of  a  corps  of  able  and  efficient  men,  who 
stand  ready  at  all  hours  of  the  day  or  night  to  attend  to 
any  accident  to  the  distribution.  Water  is  popularly 


40 


supposed  to  be  one  of  the  most  innocent  of  substances  ; 
but  when  bursting  from  its  confinement,  with  a  pressure 
equal  to  that  ordinarily  existing  in  steam-boilers,  its  ca- 
pabilities for  mischief  are  manifest.  The  veterans  of 
the  Pipe-  Yard  tell  of  many  scenes  of  excitement,  if  not 
of  danger,  at  their  midnight  "  leaks  in  main."  A  smaller 
establishment  on  North  First  street  affords  a  rendezvous 
for  a  similar  corps  of  men,  though  fewer  in  number, 
who  keep  the  distribution  of  the  Eastern  District  in  a 
thorough  state  of  repair. 

ONSUMPTION    OF 


the  water  was  first  generally  intro- 
duced, the  average  daily  consumption 
barely  exceeded  4,500,000  gallons,  or  at  the 
rate  of  25  gallons  per  day  for  each  inhabi- 
tant. This  consumption  has  continually  in- 
creased, not  alone  in  its  total  amount,  but  also  in  the 
rate  proportioned  to  the  population,  which  has  now 
reached  46  gallons  per  capita  This  increase  in  the  rate 
per  head  is  due  in  a  measure  to  the  increased  facilities 
for  disposing  of  waste-wrater,  which  the  extension  of 
sewers  affords,  and  to  a  growing  recklessness  upon  the 
part  of  the  people  in  the  use  of  an  element  apparently 
so  abundant.  It  is  also  in  part  due  to  the  growth  of 
manufacturing  industries  The  average  daily  demand 
for  water  during  the  year  1872  was  22,700,000  gallons. 
The  demand  reaches  its  maximum  in  the  coldest  part  of 
the  Winter  and  in  the  heat  of  Summer.  The  greatest 
use  occurs  on  Monday  and  Friday  ;  on  Sunday  it  is  from 
one  quarter  to  one  third  less.  At  the  different  hours  of 


the  day  the  consumption  varies  widely,  commencing  an 
hour  before  daylight,  increasing  steadily  until,  in  the 
Summer  months,  between  8  and  9  A.  M.,  about  one 
tenth  of  the  day's  supply  is  drawn.  It  decreases  ab- 
ruptly with  the  ringing  of  the  bells  at  noon ;  grows 
again  to  nearly  its  forenoon  proportions  at  3  P.  M.,  and 
gradually  diminishes,  with  a  slight  quickening  between 
6  and  7  P.  M.,  until  the  lowest  rate  of  the  day  is 
reached,  between  the  hours  of  12  and  1  A.  M.  This 
lowest  rate  is  never  less  than  200,000  gallons  per  hour, 
and  frequently  exceeds  500,000  gallons. 

The  use  of  water  for  manufacturing  purposes  is  large 
and  continually  increasing.  The  water  consumed  by 
the  fourteen  sugar-houses  alone  averages  300,000  gal- 
lons per  day,  and  the  numerous  breweries,  steam-engines, 
and  steam-vessels  add  largely  to  the  demand. 

The  use  of  the  water  as  a  motive  power  has  not  thus 
far  met  with  the  extended  patronage  that  its  convenience 
merits.  The  principal  use  that  is  made  of  the  force  of 
the  water  at  present  is  in  the  blowing  of  church-organs. 
The  hydraulic-engine  is  usually  located  in  the  cellar, 
and  a  valv^  within  the  reach  of  the  organist  serves  as  a 
more  expaditious  means  of  awakening  the  moving 
power  than  in  the  case  of  muscular  aeration.  The  cost 
of  producing  a  hymn  to  the  tune  of  Old  Hundred  upon 
the  organ  of  Plymouth  Church — at  the  presen.t*price  of 
water,  2  cents  per  100  gallons — is  14-J-  cents ;  but  the 
same  familiar  strain,  in  its  puritanic  simplicity,  can  be 
extracted  from  less  pretentious  instruments  on  lower 
grades  for  about  10  cents.  The  higher  a  church  is — 
that  is,  the  higher  above  tide — the  more  expensive  is 
its  music,  the  water  having  less  pressure ;  more  of  it  is 


required  to  furnish  the  necessary  air  to  the  organ.  The 
cost  of  obtaining  power  for  manufacturing  purposes 
from  the  water  is,  within  50  feet  of  the  tide,  not  far 
from  50  cents  per  horse-power  per  hour.  The  pressure 
in  the  business  part  of  the  city  is  ample,  varying  from 
40  to  65  pounds  per  square  inch,  according  to  grade. 
The  use  of  these  water-motors  is  attended  with  great 
economy  where  the  demand  for  power  is  small  and 
quite  intermittent ;  but  for  a  steady  work  steam  is  much 
the  cheaper.  The  use  of  water  for  manufacturing  and 
for  business  purposes  is,  to  a  considerable  extent,  con- 
trolled by  meters.  There  are  at  present  seven  different 
kinds  of  water-meters  in  operation  upon  the  Works. 
Three  of  these  are  positive  measures,  two  of  which  are 
operated  by  pistons  and  reciprocating-valves,  and  one 
by  diaphragm  and  valves  ;  the  remaining  three  are  in- 
dicators, two  consisting  of  propeller-wheels  actuated  by 
the  water  flowing  by  them,  and  one  on  the  paddle-wheel 
principle  urged  by  the  impact  of  water  against  the 
blades.  The  piston-meters  give  ordinarily  the  most 
equitable  measurement,  the  indicators  invariably  favor- 
ing the  consumer,  as  on  very  slow  streams  they  fail  to 
record.  The  number  of  meters  at  present  in  use  is  649. 

DUALITY    OF    THE  ^ATEf^. 

£HE  quality  of  the  Ridge  wood  water  com- 
pares  very   favorably    with    that   of  any 
other  water-supply  in  the  world.     It  has  none 
of  the  hardness  characteristic  of  the  Croton, 
which  flows  over  a  primitive  foundation,  or  of 
the  supplies  of  Troy  and   Newburgh,  derived  from  a 


43 

country  where  calcareous  and  aluminous  minerals 
abound.  This  quality  renders  it  more  economical  for 
domestic  uses  in  the  saving  of  soap  and  for  manufac- 
turing purposes,  in  that  it  does  not  cause  any  considera- 
ble incrustation  in  steam-boilers.  Its  inorganic  impuri- 
ties are  of  a  sedimentary  character  and  settle  to  the  bot- 
tom of  the  boiler  in  the  form  of  fine  mud  instead  of 
forming  a  scale  or  incrustation,  as  would  be  the  case 
were  the  mineral  impurities  held  to  a  greater  extent  in 
solution.  It  does  not  injuriously  affect  the  health  of 
the  occasional  visitor,  as  is  frequently  the  case  with  the 
waters  of  neighboring  cities.  The  soil  through  which 
it  flows  is  composed  of  almost  entirely  insoluble  mater- 
ial, and  the  complete  aeration  that  it  receives  at  the 
broad  surfaces  of  the  ponds  and  reservoirs  causes  the 
precipitation  of  the  greater  part  of  the  mineral  impuri- 
ties held  in  solution.  The  soluble  inorganic  matter 
consists  of  the  carbonates  of  magnesia  and  of  lime  (the 
latter  present  to  a  greater  extent  in  Jamaica  stream 
than  in  any  of  the  others),  chlorides  of  magnesium, 
calcium  anu.  sodium,  sulphates  of  lime  and  magnesia, 
and  oxide  of  iron,  the  weight  of  the  whole  not  exceed- 
ing 2£  grains  per  gallon,  or  in  about  the  proportion  of 
one  ounce  in  six  barrels  of  water.  For  the  sake  of 
comparison,  the  analyses  of  the  waters  used  in  several 
cities  are  added,  the  numbers  indicating  the  'grains  of 
solid  matter  per  gallon :  Brooklyn,  2.64 ;  New  York,  6.65 ; 
Philadelphia,  4.26  ;  Boston,  3.57  ;  Albany,  4.72  ;  London, 
28  ;  Paris,  9.86.  This  exceeding  purity  of  the  water  is 
not,  however,  without  its  objections,  since  it  fails  to  at- 
tach that  protective  coating  to  the  pipes  that  is  deposit- 
ed by  more  alkaline  waters,  but,  on  the  contrary,  it 


44 


actively  attacks  all  lead  and  iron  with  which  it  comes 
in  contact.  Small  iron  pipes  are  often  closed  in  a  few 
years  with  rust,  while  in  pipes  of  lead  and  galvanized 
iron  white,  glistening  particles  of  oxycarbonate  of  lead 
or  zinc  are  formed,  which  have  proved  in  numerous 
cases  detrimental  to  the  health  of  consumers.  Perhaps 
the  most  objectionable  impurity  of  the  Ridge  wood 
water  is  its  organic  matter,  which,  happily,  is  not  pres- 
ent in  any  considerable  quantity.  It  is  derived  from 
the  decay  of  the  luxurious  vegetation  of  the  country 
through  which  the  water  flows,  in  part,  and  in  part 
from  the  imperfect  cleansing  of  the  beds  of  the  streams, 
as  well  as  from  the  multitudes  of  fish  that  infest  them. 
Wherever  the  waters  are  impounded  they  swarm  with 
fish,  the  most  numerous  of  which  are  the  yellow  perch 
and  eel  ;  but  the  trout  roach,  shiner,  pickerel,  white 
perch,  and  black  bass  are  all  well  represented.  These 
fish  are  all  animal  feeders,  and  contribute  nothing 
toward  the  suppression  of  vegetable  growth.  Com- 
plaints of  a  disagreeable  taste  and  smell  of  the  water  are 
rare  and  local.  When  they  occur,  the  difficulty  is 
speedily  removed  by  opening  a  fire- hydrant  in  the 
vicinity  for  a  short  time.  On  such  occasions,  the  water 
flowing  from  the  hydrant  yields,  if  filtered  through  a 
cloth,  an  immense  number  of  fine,  greenish-brown  con- 
fervoid  filaments,  rarely  branching,  but  much  interlaced 
and  often  curiously  beaded  with  short  nodes  alternately 
lighter  and  darker  in  color.  Complaints  of  the  mudiness 
of  the  water  are  more  frequent,  and  these  arise  from  a 
disturbance  of  the  rust  and  sediment  in  the  pipes  by  an 
unusual  velocity  of  the  water.  This  difficulty  it  is  im- 
possible to  remedy,  as  the  opening  of  hydrants  only 


45 

increases  the  disturbance.  *  It  occurs  most  frequently  on 
Monday  mornings  in  the  Summer,  when,  in  addition  to 
the  great  demand  for  water  for  washing,  the  street- 
sprinklers  are  also  at  work.  A  serious  inconvenience  to 
the  consumers  arises  from  the  presence  of  eels,  which 
find  their  way  through  the  screens  while  they  are  still 
yery  small,  and,  passing  down  the  mains  and  into  the 
smaller  pipes,  collect  in  great  numbers  upon  the  lower 
grades.  They  grow  to  great  size,  often  exceeding  three 
feet  in  length,  and  find  a  plentiful  subsistence  on  the 
swarms  of  fresh-water  shrimp  with  which  the  pipes 
abound.  On  the  approach  of  Winter,  usually  at  ftie 
first  decided  fall  of  temperature,  the  trouble  begins 
from  their  entrance  into  the  taps,  and  as  many  as 
twenty  consumers  have  had  their  water-supply  thus 
summarily  cut  off  in  a  single  day.  The  obstruction 
usually  defies  all  attempts  at  remedy  short  of  digging 
out  the  tap  and  extracting  the  unfortunate  explorer 
with  a  cork-screw.  The  eels  taken  from  the  pipes  are 
fat,  well  conditioned,  and  apparently  not  inconvenienced 
by  the  pressure  of  from  50  to  75  pounds  per  square  inch 
that  they  have  sustained.  It  is  a  singular  fact  that 
these  eels  are  almost  invariably  caught  by  the  tail. 
Where  one  eel  has  been  taken  from  a  tap  the  chances 
are  in  favor  of  obtaining  several  more  at  the  same  tap 
in  quick  succession.  A  contrivance  has  recently  been 
applied  to  the  taps,  which  will  prevent  all  trouble  with 
the  new  taps  in  the  future  ;  but  as  there  remain  some 
40,000  taps  unguarded,  the  people  of  Brooklyn  will  be 
obliged  for  a  long  time  to  carry  on  an  expensive  fishery. 
Frogs  of  over  half  a  pound  in  weight,  and  trout  from 
four  to  six  inches  long,  have  occasionally  been  thrown 


46 

-out  through  the  fire-hydrants.  The  eyes  of  the  fish 
taken  from  the  pipes  are  frequently  covered  by  a  nearly- 
opaque  pellicle  through  which  the  pupil  is  barely  to  be 
distinguished. 

^OST    OF    THE    ^ATEF^. 

?HE  cost  of  the  Works,  under  the  original 
contract,  was  $4,625,000,  and  the  expense 
of  extending  and  perfecting  them  during  the 
subsequent  years  has  more  than  equaled  this 
amount.  The  total  cost  at  present  is  $9,500,000, 
and  their  value,  or  the  cost  of  constructing  them,  at  the 
existing  rates  for  land,  labor,  and  material,  has  been  es- 
timated at  $15,000,000.  The  amounts  necessary  for  con- 
struction and  extension  have  been  raised  by  the  issue  of 
bonds,  the  interest  on  which,  together  with  the  cost  of 
maintenance  and  an  annual  deposit  of  $50,000  as  a  sink- 
ing-fund for  their  retirement  as  they  become  due,  has 
been  paid  from  the  revenue  derived  from  the  water- 
rates.  Up  to  the  year  1871,  a  large  and  increasing  de- 
ficiency existed,  which  was  provided  for  by  general 
taxation.  In  that  year  the  water  rates  were  raised  to  an 
extent  that  resulted  in  an  increase  of  the  revenue  of  30 
per  cent.,  leaving  a  surplus  as  large  as  the  former  de- 
ficiency. The  rates  have  since  been  so  adjusted  as  to 
cover  as  nearly  as  possible  the  necessary  expenses  of  in- 
terest, deposit,  and  maintenance,  and  the  surplus,  if  any, 
is  by  recent  legislation  made  a  part  of  a  special  sinking- 
fund.  The  water-revenue  is  collected  in  two  forms — as 
regular  and  as  extra  rates.  The  regular  rates  are  cal- 
culated upon  the  front  dimensions  of  the  building  before 


47 


which  the  distributing-pipe  passes,  or,  in  the  case  of  va- 
cant property,  upon  the  frontage  and  assessed  valuation. 
Each  building  is  entitled  to  the  use  of  one  bath,  one 
water-closet,  and  the  necessary  sinks  and  basins  for  the 
domestic  uses  of  12  occupants  without  charge  further 
than  the  payment  of  the  regular  rates  ;  all  water-fixtures 
and  occupants  in  excess  of  these  are  subject  to  addi- 
tional charge.  The  regular  rates  accrue  whether  the 
water  is  introduced  into  the  premises  or  not,  and  become 
a  lien  upon  the  property  in  the  same  manner  as  the  city 
taxes.  The  extra  rates  are  collected  for  the  use  of 
water  for  other  than  domestic  purposes,  and  their  pay- 
ment is  enforced  by  the  cutting  off  of  the  supply.  The 
rates  are  established  upon  the  basis  of  a  charge  of  3 
cents  per  100  gallons  of  water  used  for  domestic  pur- 
poses, 2|  cents  for  a  like  amount  of  building,  stabling, 
fountain,  and  tavern  uses,  and  2  cents  per  100  gallons 
for  business  and  manufacturing  purposes,  steam-engines, 
etc.  For  the  latter  yses,  the  quantity  taken  is  accurately 
determined  by  meters  ;  but  in  the  other  cases,  as  there 
is  no  means  of  limiting  the  quantity  consumed  by  each, 
the  rate  is  far  from  being  uniform  or  equitable.  During 
the  year  1872,  the  cost  of  pumping  alone  was  one  eighth 
of  one  cent  per  100  gallons,  and  the  total  cost  of  deliver- 
ing 8,250,000,000  gallons  was  at,  very  nearly,  the  rate  of 
1  cent  per  100  gallons.  Not  far  from  35 ,000,000*  gallons 
were  used  for  fire  and  sewer  purposes,  and  about  3,000,- 
000,000  gallons  were  paid  for  at  the  rates  above,  leaving 
over  5,000,000  gallons  furnished  gratuitously.  It  is  evi- 
dent that  an  enormous  waste  of  water  is  allowed  by 
many  negligent  members  of  our  community  ;  in  fact, 
the  average  consumer,  who  pays  but  $10  a  year  for  the 


48 

use  of  water,  may,  by  leaving  his  faucet  open,  waste  in 
one  year  $300  worth  of  water,  at  the  established  rates, 
or  water  that  it  has  cost  over  $20  to  pump  into  the  res- 
ervoir. A  general  system  of  supply  by  measurement 
through  meters  would,  no  doubt,  curb  the  extravagant 
waste,  but  might,  on  the  other  hand,  induce  an  economy 
of  water  that  would  be  prejudicial  to  the  public  health 
and  cleanliness,  and  interfere  with  the  proper  discharge 
of  the  more  solid  portions  of  the  sewage.  A  reduction 
in  the  size  of  the  taps,  or  the  use  of  meters  designed  to 
discontinue  the  flow  when  the  amount  of  water  paid 
for  by  the  rate  fixed  upon  the  premises  shall  have  been 
drawn,  would  seem  a  medium  course  and  one  promising 
favorable  results. 

It  is  believed  that  the  foregoing  pages  have  been  suf- 
ficiently explicit  to  convey  to  the  interested  citizen  or 
to  the  inquiring  observer  from  abroad  an  intelligent 
idea  of  the  construction  and  operation  of  the  Water- 
Works  of  Brooklyn. 


OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY 


YA  01455 


